By 1890, Germany had been a nation-state for almost 20 years. Liberal nationalism was dying of its own success, and a new kind of popular ideas about the German Volk and the homeland were emerging to represent the generation that had been born within the borders of a German state and was now reaching adulthood. Necessarily, these ideas would have adopted the foundations of German cultural superiority and common identity that had been embraced at the turn of the century, and this was encouraged by colonialism. This popular nationalism was encouraged by a more active climate of public debate and freer politics. They were no doubt also affected by the army's position in German society and the interference of a military-dominated government. The presence of minorities within the empire and growing anti-Semitism in Europe encourage racist views, and the growing political importance of the SPD has spurred fears of socialist threats to the nation. Above all, during this period, German nationalism took root in male chauvinistic sentiments. In the 1890s, Germans felt their allegiance to a normal state at least as strongly as citizens of France and other European countries. Germany had not only built all the required symbols of national identity such as a common currency, a flag and an anthem, but relied heavily on a well-integrated national apparatus, including the post office, the judiciary and the Reichstag. The Prussian Hohenzollern who ruled the empire had also become symbols of national unity, as Wilhelm II was seen as a German emperor, not a Prussian, and although this man was disliked by many, the institution had become a symbol of national unity . Furthermore, a new generation of Germans had grown up with a common military perspective, encouraging a manly assessment of the situation. The numerous religious cults of the time commonly expressed a commitment to the all-male Bund as essential to German cultural identity. Threats from within the state were not just political, but perceived as things that threatened virile virtues, such as homosexuality, and even the growing political and economic importance of women. German nationalism during this period finally achieved the status of a mass popular movement. This movement was, however, strongly influenced by the state and the current ruling class, and was accused of militancy. Ideas of German racial superiority had been perverted into widespread racism, and the nature of nationalism was defined as much by perceived threats to the state as by positive views of the German VolkWorks CitedHistory of Germany 1780-1918