The basic structure of cities in Europe towards the end of the 19th century was strongly influenced by the “second Industrial Revolution” (also known as the Technological Revolution), which brought with it new materials, sources of energy and goods for trade. Newly built factories and demand for industrial jobs led to mass urbanization. Many rural populations have moved to urban areas to find work. The creation of new industrial jobs contributed to the growth of the middle class, and the growing populations of economically powerful cities such as London and Paris encouraged the exchange of new ideas and scientific studies. One of the main effects of the technological revolution was the increase in steel production among the four European powers (Russia, France, Germany and Great Britain). In 1911, for example, Russia was producing nearly 600 times as much steel as in 1871. This increase in production was caused primarily by British metallurgist Henry Bessemer's method of obtaining the desired amount of carbon in steel. The use of these Bessemer blast furnaces was widely adopted by industrialized countries that needed to build railways, heavy artillery, and warships. Steel eventually replaced iron as the primary metal used in homes, because it was stronger, cheaper to produce, and less corrosive. This allowed for more durable buildings, giving architects greater design freedom. (Hause, Maltby 756) Enormous quantities of iron and steel were needed for a project that helped shape London's future in 1863: the London Underground. Initially proposed as a radical solution to London's crowded streets and long journey times, the tube was seen as "an insult to common sense" by the London Times. However, it has proven to be an effective... middle... paper place in which to practice one's craft, such as concert halls, opera halls and theaters. With such industrialization and the grit and grime of As for city life, city planners decided that more “green spaces” were needed in more centralized places. This included small parks, decorated flower gardens, tree planting and lush greenery. These areas of supposed relaxation and tranquility, however, were highly controlled and were illusions of the rural lifestyle, designed to distract citizens from dirty life and allow them to practice good manners and remain solitary. The Church and the clergy were not adapted and did not adapt to the growth of the population. The middle classes and the bourgeoisie were the people who had the highest church attendance. In Manchester in 1851, 34% of church-goers attended the Anglican church and 42% attended Nonconformist chapels..