Adults and Children as Learners Teaching adults should be different if adults learn differently than children. Theories or perspectives on adult learning, such as andragogy, make a series of assertions about the characteristics of adults as learners: adults need learning to be meaningful; they are autonomous, independent and self-directed; previous experiences are a rich learning resource; their willingness to learn is associated with a transition point or the need to perform a task; their orientation is centered on problems, not on contents; are intrinsically motivated; their participation in learning is voluntary (Draper 1998; Sipe 2001; Tice 1997; Titmus 1999). For some, “the main difference between adults and younger students is the richness of their experience” (Taylor, Marienau, and Fiddler 2000, p. 7). For others, the capacity for critical thinking or transformative learning is what distinguishes adults (Vaske 2001). In contrast, pedagogy assumes that the learning child is a dependent personality, has limited experience, is ready to learn according to age level, is oriented towards learning a particular subject, and is motivated by external rewards and punishments (Guffey and Rampp 1997; Sipe 2001). If there are indeed "distinctive characteristics of adults, on which claims for the uniqueness and coherence of adult education are based, then they might be expected to be taken into account in all organized adult education" (Titmus 1999, p. 347). However, each of these characteristics is contested. Courtney et al. (1999) state that “characteristics of adult learners” refers to a small number of identified factors with little supporting empirical evidence. Andragogy has been criticized for characterizing adults as... focus of the article ......actions for continuing and adult education n. 91, edited by CA Hansman and PA Sissel, pp. 17-27. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Fall 2001. Smith, M. C., & Pourchot, T., eds. Adult learning and development. Perspectives from educational psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1998. Taylor, K.; Marienau, C.; and Fiddler, M. Development of adult learners. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2000.Tice, E.T. “Educating Adults: A Question of Balance.” Adult Learning 9, no. 1 (Fall 1997): 18-21.Titmus, C. "Concepts and Practices of Adult Education and Training: Barriers to Lifelong Education and Learning?" International Journal of Continuing Education 18, no. 5 (September-October 1999): 343-354. Vaske, J. M. "Critical Thinking in Adult Education: An Elusive Search for a Definition of the Field." Ed.D. master's thesis, Drake University, 2001. (ED 456 251)